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Topic
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Lõkad, lõkmed, and… lõke?
Keywords: Estonian, etymology, lexical history, word families
This article explores the origins and connections of the Estonian words lõkad ‘the white bands of a minister’s clerical collar’ and lõkmed ‘the small trapezoid-shaped coloured tabs on the corner of a uniform collar (indicating branch of service or area of duty)’. In standard Estonian, both meanings are metaphorical. The metaphor rests on a comparison with the human dewlap, a rooster’s wattle, and fish gills: in dialects, lõkk, gen. lõka means ‘dewlap, fold; wattle; gill’ (also ‘clerical collar’), while lõkmed means ‘gills; corner of the mouth; wattle’. What unites these body parts –…
This article explores the origins and connections of the Estonian words lõkad ‘the white bands of a minister’s clerical collar’ and lõkmed ‘the small trapezoid-shaped coloured tabs on the corner of a uniform collar (indicating branch of service or area of duty)’. In standard Estonian, both meanings are metaphorical. The metaphor rests on a comparison with the human dewlap, a rooster’s wattle, and fish gills: in dialects, lõkk, gen. lõka means ‘dewlap, fold; wattle; gill’ (also ‘clerical collar’), while lõkmed means ‘gills; corner of the mouth; wattle’. What unites these body parts –…
Two sides of the same crisis
Keywords: COVID-19, Cognitive Metaphor Theory, metaphors, public sector, leadership, Estonian
While many studies have examined metaphors in COVID-19 discourse, few have focused on how healthcare leaders use metaphors to reflect on the crisis from a post-pandemic perspective. This study analyzes the conceptual metaphors used in reflective discourse by Estonian healthcare leaders to better understand the challenges of medical crisis management and preparedness.
The material is drawn from the 2023 Estonian Health Board report COVID-19 Pandemic Descriptive Analysis and Lessons Learned, which includes a medical overview by virologist Irja Lutsar and interviews with 20 crisis-management experts conducted by Kantar Emor. Grounded in Cognitive…
While many studies have examined metaphors in COVID-19 discourse, few have focused on how healthcare leaders use metaphors to reflect on the crisis from a post-pandemic perspective. This study analyzes the conceptual metaphors used in reflective discourse by Estonian healthcare leaders to better understand the challenges of medical crisis management and preparedness.
The material is drawn from the 2023 Estonian Health Board report COVID-19 Pandemic Descriptive Analysis and Lessons Learned, which includes a medical overview by virologist Irja Lutsar and interviews with 20 crisis-management experts conducted by Kantar Emor. Grounded in Cognitive…
The poetics of smell in Carolina Pihelgas’s novel “Looking at the Night”
Keywords: poetics of smell, memory, trauma, mother-daughter relationship, corporeality, sensuousness, affective literature
This article explores the representation of the sense of smell in Carolina Pihelgas’s novel “Looking at the Night” (Vaadates ööd, 2022). Among the senses, smell is particularly difficult to capture in language, often requiring the use of metaphors, comparisons, and figurative expressions. In Pihelgas’s work, smells are not employed merely to describe the environment but also to mediate the characters’ inner lives, memories, traumas, and intergenerational experiences.
The novel consists of three parts, recounting the stories of grandmother, mother, and daughter. Smells weave these narratives together, signifying both personal and…
This article explores the representation of the sense of smell in Carolina Pihelgas’s novel “Looking at the Night” (Vaadates ööd, 2022). Among the senses, smell is particularly difficult to capture in language, often requiring the use of metaphors, comparisons, and figurative expressions. In Pihelgas’s work, smells are not employed merely to describe the environment but also to mediate the characters’ inner lives, memories, traumas, and intergenerational experiences.
The novel consists of three parts, recounting the stories of grandmother, mother, and daughter. Smells weave these narratives together, signifying both personal and…
On the language of Estonian Moravian hymnals: Introductory remarks
Keywords: history of language, Moravian Brethren, hymnals, Estonian, South Estonian
This article is a first attempt to analyze the Estonian language of the writings of the Moravian (Herrnhutian) movement, which brought about profound shifts in worldview and social life in Estonia. To this end, I compared the language of Moravian hymnals with that of non-Moravian ones.
I juxtaposed five South Estonian and two North Estonian Moravian hymnals from the period 1741–1810 with the official Lutheran hymnals of the same era. From each book, a 5,000-word excerpt was examined for variation in the use of the most frequent linguistic elements. Most of the…
This article is a first attempt to analyze the Estonian language of the writings of the Moravian (Herrnhutian) movement, which brought about profound shifts in worldview and social life in Estonia. To this end, I compared the language of Moravian hymnals with that of non-Moravian ones.
I juxtaposed five South Estonian and two North Estonian Moravian hymnals from the period 1741–1810 with the official Lutheran hymnals of the same era. From each book, a 5,000-word excerpt was examined for variation in the use of the most frequent linguistic elements. Most of the…
The Latvian language of the manuscripts of the Moravian Brethren in the 18th and early 19th centuries
Keywords: Latvian language history; Moravian Brethren manuscripts; standardization of written Latvian; dialect influence; 18th-century sociolinguistics
This article examines the Latvian language as found in the manuscripts of the Moravian Brethren from the 18th and early 19th centuries, offering a sociolinguistic analysis of how standard written Latvian evolved in interaction with spoken dialects. It traces the historical development of Latvian written language from the early Reformation texts to the emergence of a more standardized form following the 1739 Bible revision. Special attention is given to the role of the Moravian Brethren in expanding literacy among Latvian-speaking peasants and fostering a manuscript tradition…
This article examines the Latvian language as found in the manuscripts of the Moravian Brethren from the 18th and early 19th centuries, offering a sociolinguistic analysis of how standard written Latvian evolved in interaction with spoken dialects. It traces the historical development of Latvian written language from the early Reformation texts to the emergence of a more standardized form following the 1739 Bible revision. Special attention is given to the role of the Moravian Brethren in expanding literacy among Latvian-speaking peasants and fostering a manuscript tradition…
Marcus Heinrich Windekilde and the linguistic situation in Sleswick and Livonia in 1838
Keywords: liturgical language, standard language, colonial language, travel account, Tartu-Estonian, Moravian Brethren
In 1838, Marcus Heinrich Windekilde, who ran the Moravian congregation at Tartu, Livonia, set out on a long journey with his family by horse-drawn coach in order to visit his father in the Danish-speaking part of the Duchy of Sleswick. The father was about to celebrate his fiftieth anniversary as a Lutheran minister.
After his return, Windekilde wrote a report about this journey for the Moravian Brethren under his care. His account is therefore composed in Tartu-Estonian. Windekilde took great care to use words his readers and listeners would understand,…
In 1838, Marcus Heinrich Windekilde, who ran the Moravian congregation at Tartu, Livonia, set out on a long journey with his family by horse-drawn coach in order to visit his father in the Danish-speaking part of the Duchy of Sleswick. The father was about to celebrate his fiftieth anniversary as a Lutheran minister.
After his return, Windekilde wrote a report about this journey for the Moravian Brethren under his care. His account is therefore composed in Tartu-Estonian. Windekilde took great care to use words his readers and listeners would understand,…
“My heart trembles inside”
Keywords: pietism, Moravian Brethren, sentimentalism, Estonian narrative literature
Although Estonian written languages had existed since at least the first half of the 17th century, for a long time they were not used by native speakers either as writers or as readers. It was only with the arrival of the Moravian Brethren movement that a new attitude toward the written word emerged, making it easier for both writers and readers to adopt Estonian as a written language – previously perceived mainly as an instrument of colonization. The origins of Estonian narrative literature lie in the Moravian movement. On the initiative of the…
Although Estonian written languages had existed since at least the first half of the 17th century, for a long time they were not used by native speakers either as writers or as readers. It was only with the arrival of the Moravian Brethren movement that a new attitude toward the written word emerged, making it easier for both writers and readers to adopt Estonian as a written language – previously perceived mainly as an instrument of colonization. The origins of Estonian narrative literature lie in the Moravian movement. On the initiative of the…
Multilingual aspects in Moravian manuscripts
Keywords: Moravians, Livonia, history of Latvian language, multilingualism, imagined decolonized space, lexical phenomena of the Moravian Church
Until the mid-18th century, written Latvian and Estonian served as ‘means of colonization and Christianization’ (Lukas 2020: 42), since they were written by educated Germans who had immigrated to the country. The first steps towards a distinctly Latvian writing system in the Latvian-speaking region of historic Livonia came through the influence of the Moravian Church. The Moravian Brethren, active worldwide, promoted egalitarian practices based on a hierarchical equality between languages, which set in motion a process of decolonization. Through the parallel use of Latvian…
Until the mid-18th century, written Latvian and Estonian served as ‘means of colonization and Christianization’ (Lukas 2020: 42), since they were written by educated Germans who had immigrated to the country. The first steps towards a distinctly Latvian writing system in the Latvian-speaking region of historic Livonia came through the influence of the Moravian Church. The Moravian Brethren, active worldwide, promoted egalitarian practices based on a hierarchical equality between languages, which set in motion a process of decolonization. Through the parallel use of Latvian…
Fragments of Baltic Germans’ everyday written Estonian in the 18th–20th centuries
Keywords: cultural history, Baltic Germans, Baltic German language, multilingualism, language use, diaspora
This article explores the everyday written use of Estonian by Baltic Germans in the 18th–20th centuries, drawing on a wide range of illustrative examples. It focuses on surviving chance fragments that reflect the multilingual cultural sphere of the period. Approaching the topic from a cultural-historical perspective, the article describes the Baltic Germans’ use of Estonian (resp., Latvian) as situational and functional, shaped by their living environment, social position, and the dynamics of historical circumstances. From the examples, four principal contexts of use emerge: (a) expression of local colour and nostalgia,…
This article explores the everyday written use of Estonian by Baltic Germans in the 18th–20th centuries, drawing on a wide range of illustrative examples. It focuses on surviving chance fragments that reflect the multilingual cultural sphere of the period. Approaching the topic from a cultural-historical perspective, the article describes the Baltic Germans’ use of Estonian (resp., Latvian) as situational and functional, shaped by their living environment, social position, and the dynamics of historical circumstances. From the examples, four principal contexts of use emerge: (a) expression of local colour and nostalgia,…
Secular songs as information-sharing devices and tools of education during the peasant Enlightenment
Keywords: song, popular Enlightenment, Napoleonic Wars, recruitment, abolition of serfdom, schooling and education
The written and oral culture of the Baltic indigenous peoples underwent gradual changes in the late 18th and 19th centuries. According to Wolfgang Welsch, vision is linked with knowledge and science, while hearing relates to faith and religion (Welsch 1996: 248) – this distinction shaped the interaction between oral and written culture. Among Baltic peasants, oral culture remained dominant until the mid-19th century, with the German clergy continuing to control the information space despite ongoing social change. During the Enlightenment, secular Latvian literature began to emerge. Gotthard Friedrich…
The written and oral culture of the Baltic indigenous peoples underwent gradual changes in the late 18th and 19th centuries. According to Wolfgang Welsch, vision is linked with knowledge and science, while hearing relates to faith and religion (Welsch 1996: 248) – this distinction shaped the interaction between oral and written culture. Among Baltic peasants, oral culture remained dominant until the mid-19th century, with the German clergy continuing to control the information space despite ongoing social change. During the Enlightenment, secular Latvian literature began to emerge. Gotthard Friedrich…
Why the Bible, and how to read it?
Keywords: history of literature, theology, Early Modern intellectual history, Pietism, Moravian Brethren, Estonia and Livonia
Estonian Bible research has predominantly focused on the development of biblical and literary language, with little attention given to paratextual elements such as prefaces and reading aids, despite their considerable presence and volume in early modern Bibles.
The Pietistic renewal, initiated by Spener’s Pia desideria (1675), placed the Bible at the very centre of Christian life. Independent engagement with the Bible became soteriologically indispensable for everyone. Spener’s associate Johann Fischer, who had arrived in Livonia in 1673, began organizing a school network and Bible publication in four local languages,…
Estonian Bible research has predominantly focused on the development of biblical and literary language, with little attention given to paratextual elements such as prefaces and reading aids, despite their considerable presence and volume in early modern Bibles.
The Pietistic renewal, initiated by Spener’s Pia desideria (1675), placed the Bible at the very centre of Christian life. Independent engagement with the Bible became soteriologically indispensable for everyone. Spener’s associate Johann Fischer, who had arrived in Livonia in 1673, began organizing a school network and Bible publication in four local languages,…
Marking palatalization
Keywords: Estonian orthography, palatalization, historical sociolinguistics, Otto Wilhelm Masing, 19th century, document analysis
Palatalization is not indicated in standard Estonian orthography. In the 1820s, Otto Wilhelm Masing proposed marking palatalization with a small dot placed beneath the vowel preceding the palatalized consonant. This article examines the extent to which Masing’s proposal was adopted and explores the reasons why the palatalization mark ultimately failed to become part of standard written Estonian. Masing also introduced the letter õ to distinguish between the sounds ö /ø/ and õ /ɤ/ in writing. That innovation was successful, even though – much like palatalization – õ…
Palatalization is not indicated in standard Estonian orthography. In the 1820s, Otto Wilhelm Masing proposed marking palatalization with a small dot placed beneath the vowel preceding the palatalized consonant. This article examines the extent to which Masing’s proposal was adopted and explores the reasons why the palatalization mark ultimately failed to become part of standard written Estonian. Masing also introduced the letter õ to distinguish between the sounds ö /ø/ and õ /ɤ/ in writing. That innovation was successful, even though – much like palatalization – õ…
The Estonian language in 18th-century parish registers
Keywords: historical sociolinguistics, administrative language, parish registers
Since the second half of the 17th century, parish registers served as administrative documents in which local pastors recorded the births, marriages, and deaths of congregation members. The matrix language of the registers was German. However, the names of peasants were entered following the Estonian model (byname + given name). In some registers, Estonian was also used systematically for additional information concerning individuals from lower social strata. This article investigates how the use of Estonian in parish registers evolved over time, whether there were specific geographic areas where Estonian was used more consistently, and…
Since the second half of the 17th century, parish registers served as administrative documents in which local pastors recorded the births, marriages, and deaths of congregation members. The matrix language of the registers was German. However, the names of peasants were entered following the Estonian model (byname + given name). In some registers, Estonian was also used systematically for additional information concerning individuals from lower social strata. This article investigates how the use of Estonian in parish registers evolved over time, whether there were specific geographic areas where Estonian was used more consistently, and…
Written Finnish: Genuine vernacular or something completely different?
Keywords: written Finnish, history, language policy, colonial language
The first Estonian book was printed 500 years ago; no copies of the book have survived. The history of publishing in Finnish dates to 1543, with Mikael Agricola’s Abc-book. Agricola went on to publish eight additional works. This development was driven by the Lutheran Reformation on both sides of the Gulf of Finland. This article discusses the reasons why the paths of development diverged so markedly between the sister languages Finnish and Estonian.
Finland was part of Sweden, but remained geographically distinct. A Swedish-speaking population lived along the coast, but these were ordinary peasants…
The first Estonian book was printed 500 years ago; no copies of the book have survived. The history of publishing in Finnish dates to 1543, with Mikael Agricola’s Abc-book. Agricola went on to publish eight additional works. This development was driven by the Lutheran Reformation on both sides of the Gulf of Finland. This article discusses the reasons why the paths of development diverged so markedly between the sister languages Finnish and Estonian.
Finland was part of Sweden, but remained geographically distinct. A Swedish-speaking population lived along the coast, but these were ordinary peasants…